Stephenson, Robert D. Hayes, and Luigi Boitani the economic impacts of wolves, especially their preda­ tion on big game animals of importance to hunters. Instrumental behavior can be controlled by goal-directed action–outcome and habitual stimulus–response processes that are supported by anatomically distinct brain systems.

For example, there was only 1 case of unprovoked wolf aggression documented between 1900 and 1969, but 18 cases of unprovoked aggression toward people … Wolf attacks are injuries to humans or their property by any subspecies of wolf. To explore wolf–human relationship, we analysed behaviours of hand reared, extensively socialized wolves towards four visitor types: foster-parents, close acquaintances, persons met once before, and complete strangers during a greeting episode. Wolf hybrids retain many wolf-like characteristics which make their behavior unpredictable in the human setting. As a result, wolves today tend to live mostly far from people or have developed the tendency and ability to avoid them. The wolf (Canis lupus), also known as the gray wolf or grey wolf, is a large canine native to Eurasia and North America.More than thirty subspecies of Canis lupus have been recognized, and gray wolves, as colloquially understood, comprise non-domestic/feral subspecies. To explore wolf–human relationship, we analysed behaviours of hand reared, extensively socialized wolves towards four visitor types: fosterparents, close acquaintances, persons met once before, and complete strangers during a greeting episode. Gray wolf attacks are rare because wolves are often subsequently killed, or even extirpated in reaction by human beings. As a result, attacks upon humans likely happen at disproportionately high rates, and there are documented accounts of fatal attacks by wolf hybrids on people in the United States (Sacks, J. Breeds of dog involved in fatal human attacks in the United States between 1979 – 1998.
Aggression During Human–Wolf Encounters A published review of wolf-human encounters in North America (McNay 2002a,b) revealed that the reported incidence of aggression by wolves is very low, but it has increased in recent years.

Based on previous findings showing that stress modulates the interaction of “cognitive” and “habit” memory systems, we asked in the presented study whether stress may coordinate goal-directed and habit … Besides the pointing studies, it has been shown that hand-raised, captive wolves can also adjust their behaviour to the attentional state of humans to a certain extent, as they beg for food preferentially from a human who is oriented towards them rather than from someone whose back is turned to them (Udell, Dorey, & Wynne, 2011). Their frequency varies with geographical location and historical period.
The wolf is the largest extant member of Canidae, males averaging 40 kg (88 lb) and females 37 kg (82 lb).